Fluent Python
Chapter 9 on pytest
Chapter 9 of the Fluent Python book, by Luciano Ramalho, presents a Vector2d class.
It's a good reminder and example for experienced developers that are learning python. For instance, I can remember lots of concepts at once and compare with my other known programming languages, like Ruby.
Directory Structure suggestion
I also converted to the follow structure, recommended for a isolated component/module in python. I was used to Rails framework conventions with a different autoloader, so this reminds me that I need to create this structure by myself in python way.
And yes, as a seasoned Rubist, it's weird to put __init__ everywhere. Don't forget that.
+ fluentpy
|- __init__.py
|+ chapter9
|- __init__.py
|- vector2d.py
|+ tests
|- __init__.py
|+ chapter9
|- __init__.py
|- test_vector2d.py
Tests, converted to pytest
The original tests Ramalho presents on the book are the also widely used doctest.
Buy the book and see there the original. The book is worthy every penny.
I just converted (and added some bits) to pytest to make most of my learning and to remember in the future.
The coverage is 100% of the original code.
In the file fluentpy/tests/chapter9/test_vector2d.py:
import math
import pytest
import fluentpy.chapter9.vector2d as v2d
class TestVector2d:
v1 = v2d.Vector2d(3, 4)
def test_init_int(self):
x, y = self.v1
assert (x, y) == (3.0, 4.0), 'Must return a tuple'
def test_clone_eval(self):
v1_clone = eval('v2d.' + repr(self.v1))
assert self.v1 == v1_clone, \
'repr must be evaluated'
def test_str(self):
assert str(self.v1) == '(3.0, 4.0)', \
'str conversion need to print a tuple'
def test_bytes(self):
assert bytes(self.v1) == b'd\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x08@\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x10@', \
'byte representation must match'
def test_abs(self):
assert abs(self.v1) == 5.0, \
'abs must be working'
def test_bool(self):
assert (bool(self.v1), bool(v2d.Vector2d(0, 0))) == (True, False), \
'bool conversion must evaluate False on null vectors'
def test_from_bytes(self):
v1_clone = v2d.Vector2d.frombytes(bytes(self.v1))
assert self.v1 == v1_clone
def test_format(self):
assert format(self.v1) == '(3.0, 4.0)', \
'format without params'
assert format(self.v1, '.2f') == '(3.00, 4.00)', \
'format 2 decimal places'
assert format(self.v1, '.3e') == '(3.000e+00, 4.000e+00)', \
'format cientific exp mode'
def test_angle(self):
assert v2d.Vector2d(0, 0).angle() == 0.0, \
'angle on null vector is zero'
assert v2d.Vector2d(1, 0).angle() == 0.0, \
'angle with y component zero is zero'
epsilon = 10 ** -8
assert abs(v2d.Vector2d(0, 1).angle() - math.pi / 2) < epsilon, \
'angle must be valid on circle'
# interesting reading: https://www.euclideanspace.com/maths/geometry/trig/inverse/index.htm
assert abs(v2d.Vector2d(1, 1).angle() - math.pi / 4) < epsilon
def test_format_polar(self):
v_1_1 = v2d.Vector2d(1, 1)
assert format(v_1_1, 'p') == '<1.4142135623730951, 0.7853981633974483>', \
'vector in polar format must match'
assert format(v_1_1, '.3ep') == '<1.414e+00, 7.854e-01>', \
'vector in polar format, with 3 decimals and exponential rest must match'
assert format(v_1_1, '0.5fp') == '<1.41421, 0.78540>', \
'vector in polar format, with 5 decimals, truncated rest must match'
def test_x_y_handling(self):
# x and y must be read only
with pytest.raises(AttributeError): # as e_info:
self.v1.x = 1
with pytest.raises(AttributeError):
self.v1.y = 2
def test_hashing(self):
v2 = v2d.Vector2d(3.1, 4.2)
assert hash(self.v1) == 7, \
'hash of vector (3, 4) is 7'
assert hash(v2) == 384307168202284039, \
'hash of a non integer components must work'
assert hash(self.v1) != hash(v2), \
'hash of (3, 4) must not match to (3.n, 4.n)'
assert hash(self.v1) == hash(v2d.Vector2d(3, 4)), \
'two different instance of vectors with same components must match'
def test_set(self):
assert len({self.v1, v2d.Vector2d(0, 0)}) == 2, \
'converting to a set must work, with two different vectors'
assert len({self.v1, self.v1}) == 1, \
'converting to set must work, with two equivalent vectors'
The original code to be tested
File: fluentpy/chapter9/vector2d.py
from array import array
import math
class Vector2d:
type_code = 'd'
def __init__(self, x, y):
self.__x = float(x)
self.__y = float(y)
@property # getter
def x(self):
return self.__x
@property # getter
def y(self):
return self.__y
def __iter__(self):
return (i for i in (self.x, self.y))
def __repr__(self):
class_name = type(self).__name__
return "{}({!r}, {!r})".format(class_name, *self)
def __str__(self):
return str(tuple(self))
def __bytes__(self):
return (bytes([ord(self.type_code)])) + \
bytes(array(self.type_code, self))
def __eq__(self, other):
return tuple(self) == tuple(other)
def __hash__(self):
return hash(self.x) ^ hash(self.y)
def __abs__(self):
return math.hypot(self.x, self.y)
def __bool__(self):
return bool(abs(self))
def angle(self):
return math.atan2(self.y, self.x)
def __format__(self, format_spec=''):
if format_spec.endswith('p'):
format_spec = format_spec[:-1]
coords = (abs(self), self.angle())
outer_format = '<{}, {}>'
else:
coords = self
outer_format = '({}, {})'
components = (format(c, format_spec) for c in coords)
return outer_format.format(*components)
@classmethod
def frombytes(cls, octets):
type_code = chr(octets[0])
memv = memoryview(octets[1:]).cast(type_code)
return cls(*memv)
In this code we have lots of methods that are used by common python functions. For instance str(something) converts the something to string. The something needs to respond to __str__, that will be called by str(). It's the equivalent in ruby to implement to_s in a class/module and use the something.to_s, that is a convetion to string conversions in Ruby.
Another example is __iter__ that must be implemented to make the object compatible with splat/unpack syntax *something or "matching" with x, y = something.
Every detail here is important for a reason. You will not use everything always.